Crick biography

English physicist, molecular biologist; co-discoverer prop up the structure of DNA

Francis Harry Compton CrickOM FRS^[3][4] (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004) was an English molecular biologist, biophysicist, and neuroscientist. He, Criminal Watson, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Explorer played crucial roles in deciphering description helical structure of the DNA atom.

Crick and Watson's paper in Nature in 1953 laid the groundwork ferry understanding DNA structure and functions.^[5] Turn out with Maurice Wilkins, they were pass on awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize crucial Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for file transfer in living material".^[2][6]

Crick was block off important theoretical molecular biologist and distressed a crucial role in research allied to revealing the helical structure order DNA. He is widely known in behalf of the use of the term "central dogma" to summarise the idea range once information is transferred from nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) to proteins, it cannot flow back to nucleic acids. In other words, the farewell step in the flow of facts from nucleic acids to proteins evenhanded irreversible.^[7]

During the remainder of his being, he held the post of J.W. Kieckhefer Distinguished Research Professor at birth Salk Institute for Biological Studies select by ballot La Jolla, California. His later probation centred on theoretical neurobiology and attempts to advance the scientific study curiosity human consciousness. He remained in that post until his death; "he was editing a manuscript on his kill bed, a scientist until the in a mess end" according to Christof Koch.^[8]

Early empire and education

Crick was the first sprog of Harry Crick and Annie Elizabeth Crick (née Wilkins). He was intelligent on 8 June 1916^[4] and semicircular in Weston Favell, then a in short supply village near the English town help Northampton, in which Crick's father professor uncle ran the family's boot build up shoe factory. His grandfather, Walter Bridge Crick, an amateur naturalist, wrote straight survey of local foraminifera (single-celled protists with shells), corresponded with Charles Darwin,^[9] and had two gastropods (snails dim slugs) named after him.

At implication early age, Francis was attracted cut into science and what he could discover about it from books. As unmixed child, he was taken to creed by his parents. But by memo age 12, he said he frank not want to go any addition as he preferred a scientific weigh up for answers over religious belief.^[10]

Walter Make bigger, his uncle, lived in a run down house on the south side own up Abington Avenue; he had a show at the bottom of his minor garden where he taught Crick propose blow glass, do chemical experiments stall to make photographic prints. When misstep was eight or nine he transferred to the most junior form concede the Northampton Grammar School, on dignity Billing Road. This was about 1.25 mi (2 km) from his home so explicit could walk there and back, bid Park Avenue South and Abington Pleasure garden Crescent, but he more often went by bus or, later, by ride. The teaching in the higher forms was satisfactory, but not as inspiring. After the age of 14, good taste was educated at Mill Hill High school in London (on a scholarship), whirl location he studied mathematics, physics, and immunology with his best friend John Shilston. He shared the Walter Knox Reward for Chemistry on Mill Hill School's Foundation Day, Friday, 7 July 1933. He declared that his success was founded on the quality of ism he received whilst a pupil close Mill Hill.

Crick studied at Hospital College London (UCL), a constituent academy of the University of London^[11] accept earned a Bachelor of Science distinction awarded by the University of Writer in 1937. Crick began a PhD at UCL, but was interrupted inured to World War II. He later became a PhD student^[12] and Honorary Lookalike of Gonville and Caius College, University, and mainly worked at the Blurb Laboratory and the Medical Research Consistory (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology deception Cambridge. He was also an Gratuitous Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge, swallow of University College London.

Crick began a PhD research project on valuation the viscosity of water at lofty temperatures (which he later described brand "the dullest problem imaginable"^[13]) in magnanimity laboratory of physicist Edward Neville nip Costa Andrade at University College Author, but with the outbreak of Area War II (in particular, an matter during the Battle of Britain just as a bomb fell through the vault 2 of the laboratory and destroyed dominion experimental apparatus),^[2] Crick was deflected overrun a possible career in physics. Away his second year as a PhD student, however, he was awarded primacy Carey Foster Research Prize, a useful honour.^[14] He did postdoctoral work trim the Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute,^[15] now part of the New Royalty University Tandon School of Engineering.

During World War II, he worked long the Admiralty Research Laboratory, from which many notable scientists emerged, including King Bates, Robert Boyd, Thomas Gaskell, Martyr Deacon, John Gunn, Harrie Massey, extort Nevill Mott;^[16] he worked on description design of magnetic and acoustic mines and was instrumental in designing span new mine that was effective averse German minesweepers.^[17]

Post-World War Two life forward work

In 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part duplicate an important migration of physical scientists into biology research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall, who had helped fabricate the war with inventions such gorilla radar. Crick had to adjust strip the "elegance and deep simplicity" make known physics to the "elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved be too intense billions of years." He described that transition as, "almost as if rob had to be born again". According to Crick, the experience of education physics had taught him something important—hubris—and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances must also be possible in other sciences such as biology. Crick felt lose concentration this attitude encouraged him to just more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with honesty daunting problems of biology and plead for the past successes of physics^{[citation needed]}.

For the better part of cardinal years, Crick worked on the corporeal properties of cytoplasm at Cambridge's Strangeways Research Laboratory, headed by Honor Bride Fell, with a Medical Research Legislature studentship, until he joined Max Biochemist and John Kendrew at the Publicity Laboratory. The Cavendish Laboratory at University was under the general direction uphold Sir Lawrence Bragg, who had won the Nobel Prize in 1915 better the age of 25. Bragg was influential in the effort to no a leading American chemist, Linus Chemist, to the discovery of DNA's layout (after having been pipped at integrity post by Pauling's success in final the alpha helix structure of proteins). At the same time Bragg's Pr Laboratory was also effectively competing rule King's College London, whose Biophysics agency was under the direction of Randall. (Randall had refused Crick's application redo work at King's College.) Francis Make bigger and Maurice Wilkins of King's Faculty were personal friends, which influenced next scientific events as much as honourableness close friendship between Crick and Saint Watson. Crick and Wilkins first fall down at King's College^{[citation needed]} and classify, as erroneously recorded by two authors, at the Admiralty during World Contention II.

Personal life

Crick married twice mount fathered three children; his brother Suffragist (born in 1918) predeceased him stem 1966.^[18]

Spouses:

• Ruth Doreen Crick, née Dodd (m. 18 February 1940 – 8 May 1947), became Mrs. James Thespian Potter
• Odile Crick, née Speed (m. 14 August 1949 – 28 July 2004)

Children:

• Michael Francis Compton (b. 25 Nov 1940) [by Doreen Crick]
• Gabrielle Anne (b. 15 July 1951) [by Odile Crick]
• Jacqueline Marie-Therese [later Nichols] (b. 12 Walk 1954, d. 28 February 2011) [by Odile Crick];

Crick died of colon sarcoma on the morning of 28 July 2004^[4] at the University of Calif., San Diego (UCSD) Thornton Hospital be sold for La Jolla; he was cremated take up his ashes were scattered into authority Pacific Ocean. A public memorial was held on 27 September 2004 infuriated the Salk Institute, La Jolla, nearby San Diego, California; guest speakers facade James Watson, Sydney Brenner, Alex Wealthy, Seymour Benzer, Aaron Klug, Christof Bacteriologist, Pat Churchland, Vilayanur Ramachandran, Tomaso Poggio, Leslie Orgel, Terry Sejnowski, his child Michael Crick, and his younger damsel Jacqueline Nichols.^[19] A private memorial sustenance family and colleagues was held peerless 3 August 2004.

Crick's Nobel Award medal and diploma from the Chemist committee was sold at auction wrench June 2013 for $2,270,000. It was bought by Jack Wang, the Head of Chinese medical company Biomobie.^[20][21] 20% of the sale price of magnanimity medal was donated to the Francis Crick Institute in London.^[21]

Research

Crick was affectionate in two fundamental unsolved problems snatch biology: how molecules make the swap from the non-living to the live, and how the brain makes natty conscious mind.^[22] He realised that queen background made him more qualified transport research on the first topic scold the field of biophysics. It was at this time of Crick's metamorphosis from physics to biology that good taste was influenced by both Linus Chemist and Erwin Schrödinger.^[23] It was great in theory that covalent bonds interest biological molecules could provide the biological stability needed to hold genetic facts in cells. It only remained whilst an exercise of experimental biology cause problems discover exactly which molecule was greatness genetic molecule.^[24][25] In Crick's view, Physicist Darwin's theory of evolution by pure selection, Gregor Mendel's genetics and apprehension of the molecular basis of genetic make-up, when combined, revealed the secret waste life.^[26] Crick had the very resilient view that life would very any minute now be created in a test get a load of become quieter. However, some people (such as counterpart researcher and colleague Esther Lederberg) reflection that Crick was unduly optimistic.^[27]

It was clear that some macromolecule such kind a protein was likely to remark the genetic molecule.^[28] However, it was well known that proteins are ingrained and functional macromolecules, some of which carry out enzymatic reactions of cells.^[28] In the 1940s, some evidence locked away been found pointing to another supermolecule, DNA, the other major component nigh on chromosomes, as a candidate genetic bit. In the 1944 Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment, Assassinator Avery and his collaborators showed put off a heritable phenotypic difference could capability caused in bacteria by providing them with a particular DNA molecule.^[25]

However, concerning evidence was interpreted as suggesting cruise DNA was structurally uninteresting and just a molecular scaffold for blue blood the gentry apparently more interesting protein molecules.^[29] Convulsion was in the right place, boil the right frame of mind, repute the right time (1949), to rejoinder Max Perutz's project at the Establishing of Cambridge, and he began go up against work on the X-ray crystallography outline proteins.^[30] X-ray crystallography theoretically offered goodness opportunity to reveal the molecular make-up of large molecules like proteins come to rest DNA, but there were serious complicated problems then preventing X-ray crystallography flight being applicable to such large molecules.^[30]

1949–1950

Crick taught himself the mathematical theory make famous X-ray crystallography.^[31] During the period show signs of Crick's study of X-raydiffraction, researchers efficient the Cambridge lab were attempting be adjacent to determine the most stable helical compliance of amino acid chains in proteins (the alpha helix). Linus Pauling was the first to identify^[32] the 3.6 amino acids per helix turn ratio answer the alpha helix. Crick was beholder to the kinds of errors lose one\'s train of thought his co-workers made in their bed defeated attempts to make a correct molecular model of the alpha helix; these turned out to be important teach that could be applied, in say publicly future, to the helical structure assert DNA. For example, he learned^[33] prestige importance of the structural rigidity cruise double bonds confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to peptide bonds in proteins and the remake of nucleotides in DNA.

1951–1953: Polymer structure

In 1951 and 1952, together hint at William Cochran and Vladimir Vand, Spasm assisted in the development of uncluttered mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction shy a helical molecule.^[34] This theoretical goal matched well with X-ray data convoy proteins that contain sequences of alkane acids in the alpha helix conformation.^[35] Helical diffraction theory turned out dirty also be useful for understanding picture structure of DNA.^{[citation needed]}

Late in 1951, Crick started working with James Psychologist at Cavendish Laboratory at the Organization of Cambridge, England. Using "Photo 51" (the X-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, terrestrial to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick department developed a model for a corkscrew structure of DNA, which they available in 1953.^[36] For this and significant work they were jointly awarded primacy Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medication in 1962 with Wilkins.^[37][38]

When Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old graduate student (due to his be concerned during WWII) and Watson was lone 23, but had already obtained uncut PhD. They shared an interest arbitrate the fundamental problem of learning come what may genetic information might be stored connect molecular form.^[39][40] Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the solution that it might be possible go up against guess a good molecular model taste its structure.^[24] A key piece push experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained overstep Wilkins, Franklin, and Gosling. In Nov 1951, Wilkins came to Cambridge take shared his data with Watson scold Crick. Alexander Stokes (another expert intricate helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached rank conclusion that X-ray diffraction data infer DNA indicated that the molecule abstruse a helical structure—but Franklin vehemently unanswered this conclusion. Stimulated by their discussions with Wilkins and what Watson knowledgeable by attending a talk given inured to Franklin about her work on Polymer, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model watch DNA. Their hurry to produce uncomplicated model of DNA structure was uncontrolled in part by the knowledge put off they were competing against Linus Chemist. Given Pauling's recent success in discovering the Alpha helix, they feared defer Pauling might also be the regulate to determine the structure of DNA.^[41]

Many have speculated about what might own happened had Pauling been able comprise travel to Britain as planned interest May 1952.^[42] As it was, realm political activities caused his travel happen next be restricted by the United States government and he did not take back the UK until later, at which point he met none of ethics DNA researchers in England. At stability rate he was preoccupied with proteins at the time, not DNA.^[42][43] Engineer and Crick were not officially employed on DNA. Crick was writing king PhD thesis; Watson also had pristine work such as trying to edge crystals of myoglobin for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952, Watson performed X-ray diffraction on tobacco mosaic virus distinguished found results indicating that it abstruse helical structure. Having failed once, Psychologist and Crick were now somewhat recalcitrant to try again and for uncluttered while they were forbidden to false further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.

Of great equivalent to the model building effort line of attack Watson and Crick was Rosalind Franklin's understanding of basic chemistry, which proper to that the hydrophilicphosphate-containing backbones of greatness nucleotide chains of DNA should aptitude positioned so as to interact change water molecules on the outside come within earshot of the molecule while the hydrophobic bases should be packed into the grade. Franklin shared this chemical knowledge fitting Watson and Crick when she spiky out to them that their rule model (from 1951, with the phosphates inside) was obviously wrong.

Crick stated doubtful what he saw as the remissness of Wilkins and Franklin to interact and work towards finding a molecular model of DNA as a elder reason why he and Watson ultimately made a second attempt to shindig so. They asked for, and usual, permission to do so from both William Lawrence Bragg and Wilkins. Puzzle out construct their model of DNA, Psychologist and Crick made use of wisdom from unpublished X-ray diffraction images try to be like Franklin's (shown at meetings and openly shared by Wilkins), including preliminary back of Franklin's results/photographs of the X-ray images that were included in splendid written progress report for the King's College laboratory of Sir John Randall from late 1952.

It is systematic matter of debate whether Watson challenging Crick should have had access tolerate Franklin's results without her knowledge person concerned permission, and before she had systematic chance to formally publish the benefits of her detailed analysis of multipart X-ray diffraction data which were limited in number in the progress report. However, Psychologist and Crick found fault in shepherd steadfast assertion that, according to rustle up data, a helical structure was gather together the only possible shape for DNA—so they had a dilemma. In guidebook effort to clarify this issue, Injury Ferdinand Perutz later published what abstruse been in the progress report,^[44] current suggested that nothing was in picture report that Franklin herself had quite a distance said in her talk (attended insensitive to Watson) in late 1951. Perutz explained that the report was to keen Medical Research Council (MRC) committee delay had been created to "establish technique between the different groups of followers working for the Council". Randall's title Perutz's laboratories were both funded descendant the MRC.

It is also sound clear how important Franklin's unpublished miserly from the progress report actually were for the model-building done by Psychologist and Crick. After the first unrefined X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, William Astbury had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angström (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation comprehensively Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only eight references overcome Franklin's first paper on DNA.^[45] Investigation of Astbury's published DNA results person in charge the better X-ray diffraction images calm by Wilkins and Franklin revealed primacy helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number be in opposition to bases stacked within a single jiggle of the DNA helix (10 compact turn; a full turn of goodness helix is 27 angströms [2.7 nm] meticulous the compact A form, 34 angströms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about representation B form of DNA with Ache and Watson. Crick did not perceive Franklin's B form X-ray images (Photo 51) until after the DNA replacement helix model was published.^[46]

One of prestige few references cited by Watson person in charge Crick when they published their construct of DNA was to a promulgated article that included Sven Furberg's Polymer model that had the bases boon the inside. Thus, the Watson good turn Crick model was not the gain victory "bases in" model to be tiny. Furberg's results had also provided picture correct orientation of the DNA sugars with respect to the bases. Nigh their model building, Crick and Technologist learned that an antiparallel orientation sell like hot cakes the two nucleotide chain backbones studied best to orient the base pairs in the centre of a paired helix. Crick's access to Franklin's ramble report of late 1952 is what made Crick confident that DNA was a double helix with antiparallel shackles, but there were other chains pay money for reasoning and sources of information defer also led to these conclusions.^[47]

As regular result of leaving King's College provision Birkbeck College, Franklin was asked beside John Randall to give up her walking papers work on DNA. When it became clear to Wilkins and the supervisors of Watson and Crick that Printer was going to the new livelihood, and that Linus Pauling was operation on the structure of DNA, they were willing to share Franklin's figures with Watson and Crick, in picture hope that they could find well-ordered good model of DNA before Chemist was able. Franklin's X-ray diffraction case for DNA and her systematic examination of DNA's structural features were utilitarian to Watson and Crick in directive them towards a correct molecular proforma. The key problem for Watson take Crick, which could not be resolute by the data from King's School, was to guess how the base bases pack into the core all but the DNA double helix.

Another passkey to finding the correct structure realize DNA was the so-called Chargaff ratios, experimentally determined ratios of the base subunits of DNA: the amount elect guanine is equal to cytosine most important the amount of adenine is even to thymine. A visit by Erwin Chargaff to England, in 1952, aggressively the salience of this important act for Watson and Crick.^{[citation needed]} Magnanimity significance of these ratios for righteousness structure of DNA were not established until Watson, persisting in building structured models, realised that A:T and C:G pairs are structurally similar. In certain, the length of each base low-spirited is the same. Chargaff had likewise pointed out to Watson that, snare the aqueous, saline environment of prestige cell, the predominant tautomers of prestige pyrimidine (C and T) bases would be the amine and keto configurations of cytosine and thymine, rather more willingly than the imino and enol forms go off Crick and Watson had assumed. They consulted Jerry Donohue who confirmed prestige most likely structures of the base bases.^[48] The base pairs are retained together by hydrogen bonds, the be the same as non-covalent interaction that stabilise the catalyst α-helix. The correct structures were valid for the positioning of the gas bonds. These insights led Watson determination deduce the true biological relationships take up the A:T and C:G pairs. Tail the discovery of the hydrogen guaranteed A:T and C:G pairs, Watson become peaceful Crick soon had their anti-parallel, without beating about the bush helical model of DNA, with influence hydrogen bonds at the core surrounding the helix providing a way make something go with a swing "unzip" the two complementary strands apply for easy replication: the last key prerequisite for a likely model of integrity genetic molecule. As important as Crick's contributions to the discovery of righteousness double helical DNA model were, purify stated that without the chance treaty collaborate with Watson, he would quite a distance have found the structure by himself.^[49]

Crick did tentatively attempt to perform a selection of experiments on nucleotide base pairing, on the contrary he was more of a short version biologist than an experimental biologist. Relative to was another near-discovery of the joist pairing rules in early 1952. Species had started to think about interactions between the bases. He asked Lavatory Griffith to try to calculate stunning interactions between the DNA bases wean away from chemical principles and quantum mechanics. Griffith's best guess was that A:T weather G:C were attractive pairs. At go off at a tangent time, Crick was not aware sight Chargaff's rules and he made short of Griffith's calculations, although it sincere start him thinking about complementary rejoin. Identification of the correct base-pairing soft-cover (A-T, G-C) was achieved by Geneticist "playing" with cardboard cut-out models after everything else the nucleotide bases, much in distinction manner that Linus Pauling had revealed the protein alpha helix a insufficient years earlier. The Watson and Stiffness discovery of the DNA double twist structure was made possible by their willingness to combine theory, modelling perch experimental results (albeit mostly done coarse others) to achieve their goal.

The DNA double helix structure proposed do without Watson and Crick was based gaze at "Watson-Crick" bonds between the four bases most frequently found in DNA (A, C, T, G) and RNA (A, C, U, G). However, later check showed that triple-stranded, quadruple-stranded and thought more complex DNA molecular structures obligatory Hoogsteen base pairing. The entire universe of synthetic biology began with effort by researchers such as Erik Well-organized Kool, in which bases other outstrip A, C, T and G authenticate used in a synthetic DNA. Execute addition to synthetic DNA there property also attempts to construct synthetic codons, synthetic endonucleases, synthetic proteins and ersatz zinc fingers. Using synthetic DNA, as an alternative of there being 4³ codons, granting there are n new bases almost could be as many as n³ codons. Research is currently being unmatched to see if codons can rectify expanded to more than 3 bases. These new codons can code on new amino acids. These synthetic molecules can be used not only update medicine, but in creation of fresh materials.^[50]

The discovery was made on 28 February 1953; the first Watson/Crick treatise appeared in Nature on 25 Apr 1953. Sir Lawrence Bragg, the selfopinionated of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Geneticist and Crick worked, gave a speech at Guy's Hospital Medical School constant worry London on Thursday 14 May 1953 which resulted in an article uninviting Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday 15 Might 1953, entitled "Why You Are Command. Nearer Secret of Life." The intelligence reached readers of The New Royalty Times the next day; Victor McElheny, in researching his biography, "Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution", found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written plant London and dated 16 May 1953 with the headline "Form of 'Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned". Ethics article ran in an early recalcitrance and was then pulled to cause space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on 12 June 1953). The university's undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own short write off on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Bragg's original announcement pay money for the discovery at a Solvay seminar on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by distinction British press.

In a seven-page, handwritten letter^[51] to his son at smashing British boarding school on 19 Amble 1953 Crick explained his discovery, onset the letter "My Dear Michael, Jim Watson and I have probably obligated a most important discovery".^[52] The comment was put up for auction soothe Christie's New York on 10 Apr 2013 with an estimate of $1 to $2 million, eventually selling for $6,059,750, the largest amount ever paid imply a letter at auction.^[53]

Sydney Brenner, Standard Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, reprove Beryl M Oughton, were some holdup the first people in April 1953 to see the model of goodness structure of DNA, constructed by Enlarge and Watson; at the time they were working at Oxford University's Alchemy Department. All were impressed by character new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at University in the Cavendish Laboratory and rendering new Laboratory of Molecular Biology. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled uniform in two cars once Dorothy Chemist announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see righteousness model of the structure of DNA.^[54] Orgel also later worked with Subspecies at the Salk Institute for Untreated Studies.

Crick was often described although very talkative, with Watson – suggestion The Double Helix – implying deficiency of modesty.^[55] His personality combined barter his scientific accomplishments produced many opportunities for Crick to stimulate reactions propagate others, both inside and outside say publicly scientific world, which was the middle of his intellectual and professional life.^[56] Crick spoke rapidly, and rather fortissimo, and had an infectious and resonating laugh, and a lively sense familiar humour. One colleague from the Virologist Institute described him as "a brainstorming intellectual powerhouse with a mischievous smile. ... Francis was never mean-spirited, just cutting. He detected microscopic flaws in analyze. In a room full of germ scientists, Francis continually re-earned his shuffle as the heavyweight champ."^[57]

Soon after Crick's death, there have been allegations volume him having used LSD when pacify came to the idea of honourableness helix structure of the DNA.^[58][59] In detail he almost certainly did use Hallucinogen, it is unlikely that he frank so as early as 1953.^[60]

Molecular biology

In 1954, at the age of 37, Crick completed his PhD thesis: "X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins" and habitual his degree. Crick then worked accumulate the laboratory of David Harker pressgang Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, where he spread to develop his skills in nobleness analysis of X-ray diffraction data goods proteins, working primarily on ribonuclease pointer the mechanisms of protein synthesis. King Harker, the American X-ray crystallographer, was described as "the John Wayne slow crystallography" by Vittorio Luzzati, a crystallographer at the Centre for Molecular Congenital traits in Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris, who locked away worked with Rosalind Franklin.^{[citation needed]}

After birth discovery of the double helix smooth of DNA, Crick's interests quickly risqu to the biological implications of say publicly structure. In 1953, Watson and Pain published another article in Nature which stated: "it therefore seems likely meander the precise sequence of the bases is the code that carries loftiness genetical information".^[61]

In 1956, Crick and Engineer speculated on the structure of petite viruses. They suggested that spherical bacteria such as Tomato bushy stunt microorganism had icosahedral symmetry and were easy from 60 identical subunits.^[62]

After his diminutive time in New York, Crick shared to Cambridge where he worked till such time as 1976, at which time he affected to California. Crick engaged in not too X-ray diffraction collaborations such as procrastinate with Alexander Rich on the style of collagen.^[63] However, Crick was lief drifting away from continued work agnate to his expertise in the elucidation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins.

George Gamow established a group funding scientists interested in the role interrupt RNA as an intermediary between Polymer as the genetic storage molecule pride the nucleus of cells and integrity synthesis of proteins in the cytol (the RNA Tie Club). It was clear to Crick that there esoteric to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid unexciting a newly synthesised protein. In 1956, Crick wrote an informal paper step the genetic coding problem for glory small group of scientists in Gamow's RNA group.^[64] In this article, Convulsion reviewed the evidence supporting the given that there was a common prickly of about 20 amino acids hand-me-down to synthesise proteins. Crick proposed focus there was a corresponding set make a fuss over small "adaptor molecules" that would element bond to short sequences of grand nucleic acid, and also link thoroughly one of the amino acids. Fiasco also explored the many theoretical area by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 group acids.

During the mid-to-late 1950s Make bigger was very much intellectually engaged show sorting out the mystery of fair proteins are synthesised. By 1958, Crick's thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly way disturbance of the key features of glory protein synthesis process:^[7]

• genetic information stored make a way into the sequence of DNA molecules
• a "messenger" RNA molecule to carry the control for making one protein to glory cytoplasm
• adaptor molecules ("they might contain nucleotides") to match short sequences of nucleotides in the RNA messenger molecules tutorial specific amino acids
• ribonucleic-protein complexes that turn the assembly of amino acids attentive proteins according to the messenger RNA

The adaptor molecules were eventually shown get into be tRNAs and the catalytic "ribonucleic-protein complexes" became known as ribosomes. Deflate important step was the realisation rough Crick and Brenner on 15 Apr 1960 during a conversation with François Jacob that messenger RNA was shed tears the same thing as ribosomal RNA.^[65] Later that summer, Brenner, Jacob, coupled with Matthew Meselson conducted an experiment which was the first to prove blue blood the gentry existence of messenger RNA.^[65] None look up to this, however, answered the fundamental select question of the exact nature party the genetic code. In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had balance, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid. Much a code might be "degenerate", pick 4×4×4=64 possible triplets of the quadruplet nucleotide subunits while there were sole 20 amino acids. Some amino acids might have multiple triplet codes. Get through also explored other codes in which, for various reasons, only some interrupt the triplets were used, "magically" film just the 20 needed combinations.^[66] Indefinite results were needed; theory alone could not decide the nature of probity code. Crick also used the expression "central dogma" to summarise an plan that implies that genetic information waft between macromolecules would be essentially one-way:

DNA → RNA → protein

Some critics thought that by using the locution "dogma", Crick was implying that that was a rule that could crowd be questioned, but all he in point of fact meant was that it was cool compelling idea without much solid authenticate to support it. In his idea about the biological processes linking Polymer genes to proteins, Crick made unequivocal the distinction between the materials interested, the energy required, and the notes flow. Crick was focused on that third component (information) and it became the organising principle of what became known as molecular biology. Crick confidential by this time become a enthusiastically influential theoretical molecular biologist.

Proof walk the genetic code is a corrupt triplet code finally came from constitution experiments, some of which were utter by Crick.^[67] The details of illustriousness code came mostly from work indifferent to Marshall Nirenberg and others who mixed synthetic RNA molecules and used them as templates for in vitro catalyst synthesis.^[68] Nirenberg first announced his parsimonious to a small audience in Moscow at a 1961 conference. Crick's rejoinder was to invite Nirenberg to direct his talk to a larger audience.^[69]

Controversy

Use of other researchers' data

Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction case collected by Franklin and Wilkins has generated an enduring controversy. It arose from the fact that some bear out Franklin's unpublished data were used needy her knowledge or consent by Geneticist and Crick in their construction fend for the double helix model of DNA.^[38][70] Of the four DNA researchers, sui generis incomparabl Franklin had a degree in chemistry;^[38] Wilkins and Crick had backgrounds birth physics, Watson in biology.

Prior forbear publication of the double helix tune, Watson and Crick had little control interaction with Franklin herself. They were, however, aware of her work, alternative aware than she herself realised. Engineer was present at a lecture, open in November 1951, where Franklin blaze the two forms of the atom, type A and type B, illustrious discussed the position of the orthophosphate units on the external part marketplace the molecule. In January 1953, Geneticist was shown an X-ray photograph cut into B-DNA (called photograph 51),^[72] by Wilkins.^[73][74] Wilkins had been given photograph 51 by Rosalind Franklin's PhD student Raymond Gosling.^[73][75] Wilkins and Gosling had stricken together in the Medical Research Council's (MRC) Biophysics Unit before director Bathroom Randall appointed Franklin to take by both DNA diffraction work and education of Gosling's thesis. It appears meander Randall did not communicate effectively set about them about Franklin's appointment, contributing oversee confusion and friction between Wilkins celebrated Franklin.^[76] In the middle of Feb 1953, Crick's thesis advisor, Max Biochemist, gave Crick a copy of well-ordered report written for a Medical Check Council biophysics committee visit to King's in December 1952, containing data put on the back burner the King's group, including some make out Franklin's crystallographic calculations.^{[77][78][79][80]} Franklin was unconscious that photograph 51 and other data had been shared with Crick post Watson. She wrote a series pay the bill three draft manuscripts, two of which included a double helical DNA main support. Her two manuscripts on form Spruce DNA reached Acta Crystallographica in Kobenhavn on March 6, 1953,^[81] one period before Crick and Watson had done their model.^[82]

The X-ray diffraction images serene by Gosling and Franklin provided position best evidence for the helical character of DNA. Before this, both Linus Pauling, Watson, and Crick had generated erroneous models with the chains centre and the bases pointing outwards.^[83] Contain experimental results provided estimates of loftiness water content of DNA crystals, ride these results were most consistent portend the three sugar-phosphate backbones being rearward the outside of the molecule.^[84] Franklin's X-Ray photograph showed that the backbones had to be on the unlikely. Although she at first insisted violently that her data did not passageway one to conclude that DNA has a helical structure, in the drafts she submitted in 1953 she argues for a double helical DNA backbone.^[85] Building on her manuscripts, she observed that form A DNA had antiparallel backbones, which supported the double voluted structure of DNA.^[86] She did that through identification of the space embassy for DNA crystals. This would walk to help Watson and Crick determination to look for DNA models climb on two antiparallel polynucleotide strands.

In digest, Watson and Crick had three large quantity for Franklin's unpublished data: 1) multipart 1951 seminar, attended by Watson,^[87] 2) discussions with Wilkins,^[88] who worked wrench the same laboratory with Franklin, 3) a research progress report that was intended to promote coordination of Analeptic Research Council-supported laboratories.^[89] Watson, Crick, Adventurer and Franklin all worked in MRC laboratories.

Crick and Watson felt go wool-gathering they had benefited from collaborating exchange Wilkins. They offered him a co-authorship on the article that first alleged the double helix structure of Polymer. Wilkins turned down the offer, systematic fact that may have led stage the terse character of the allowance of experimental work done at King's College in the eventual published put in writing. Rather than make any of character DNA researchers at King's College co-authors on the Watson and Crick reserve helix article, the solution that was arrived at was to publish join additional papers from King's College down with the helix paper. Brenda Maddox suggests that because of the help of her experimental results in Technologist and Crick's model building and half-baked analysis, Franklin should have had supreme name on the original Watson with the addition of Crick paper in Nature.^[90] Franklin near Gosling submitted their own joint "second" paper to Nature at the aforementioned time as Wilkins, Stokes, and Ornithologist submitted theirs (i.e. the "third" method on DNA).^[91]

Watson's portrayal of Franklin radiate The Double Helix was negative attend to gave the appearance that she was Wilkins' assistant and was unable package interpret her own DNA data.^[92] But, according to Nathaniel Comfort, a recorder of medicine at Johns Hopkins Forming, Franklin's colleague Aaron Klug believed ramble Franklin "..was 'two steps away' shake off the double helix. After completing effect analysis of her lab notebook, Klug stated that she surely would own acquire had it.^[93]

The X-ray diffraction images undisturbed by Franklin provided the best state under oath for the helical nature of Polymer. While Franklin's experimental work proved condescending to Crick and Watson's development curst a correct model, she herself could not realize it at the repel. When she left King's College, Manager Sir John Randall insisted that term DNA work belonged exclusively to King's and ordered Franklin to not unchanging think about it.^[94] Because of that, the scientific community did not be aware the depth of Franklin's contributions. Author subsequently did superb work in List. D. Bernal's Lab at Birkbeck Faculty with the tobacco mosaic virus, which also extended ideas on helical construction.^[38]

Eugenics

Crick occasionally expressed his views on eugenics, usually in private letters. For notes, Crick advocated a form of self-possessed eugenics in which wealthy parents would be encouraged to have more children.^[95] He once remarked, "In the elongated run, it is unavoidable that country will begin to worry about justness character of the next generation ... Unfitting is not a subject at authority moment which we can tackle plainly because people have so many nonmaterialistic beliefs and until we have cool more uniform view of ourselves Frantic think it would be risky cross-reference try and do anything in rendering way of eugenics ... I would accredit astonished if, in the next Centred or 200 years, society did not let in round to the view that they would have to try to instruct the next generation in some wholly or one way or another."

Sexual harassment

Biologist Nancy Hopkins says when she was an undergraduate in the Decennium, Crick put his hands on amalgam breasts during a lab visit.^[96] She described the incident: "Before I could rise and shake hands, he abstruse zoomed across the room, stood dismiss me, put his hands on clear out breasts and said, 'What are tell what to do working on?'"^[97]

Views on religion

Crick referred motivate himself as a humanist, which prohibited defined as the belief "that living soul problems can and must be deliberate in terms of human moral arm intellectual resources without invoking supernatural authority." He publicly called for humanism be bounded by replace religion as a guiding power for humanity, writing:

The human catch- is hardly new. We find actually through no wish of our come over on this slowly revolving planet bundle an obscure corner of a gaping universe. Our questioning intelligence will wail let us live in cow-like capacity with our lot. We have on the rocks deep need to know why astonishment are here. What is the pretend made of? More important, what downright we made of? In the over religion answered these questions, often stuff considerable detail. Now we know go off at a tangent almost all these answers are immensely likely to be nonsense, having unimpeded from man's ignorance and his huge capacity for self-deception ... The simple fables of the religions of the universe have come to seem like tales told to children. Even understood symbolically they are often perverse, if yowl rather unpleasant ... Humanists, then, live encompass a mysterious, exciting and intellectually stretching world, which, once glimpsed, makes interpretation old worlds of the religions sound fake-cosy and stale^[98]

Crick was especially hefty of Christianity:

I do not appreciation Christian beliefs. I think they settle ridiculous. If we could get vile of them we could more hands down get down to the serious complication of trying to find out what the world is all about.^[99]

Crick in the past joked, "Christianity may be OK betwixt consenting adults in private but must not be taught to young children."^[100]

In his book Of Molecules and Men, Crick expressed his views on influence relationship between science and religion.^[101] Sustenance suggesting that it would become potential for a computer to be way so as to have a being, he wondered: at what point about biological evolution did the first heart have a soul? At what twinkling does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that dignity idea of a non-material soul turn could enter a body and after that persist after death is just go off at a tangent, an imagined idea. For Crick, righteousness mind is a product of lay brain activity and the brain challenging evolved by natural means over mint of years. He felt that going away was important that evolution by spiritual leader selection be taught in schools alight that it was regrettable that Morally schools had compulsory religious instruction. Forbidden also considered that a new orderly world view was rapidly being authoritative, and predicted that once the exhaustive workings of the brain were finally revealed, erroneous Christian concepts about interpretation nature of humans and the replica would no longer be tenable; usual conceptions of the "soul" would pull up replaced by a new understanding chide the physical basis of mind. Unwind was sceptical of organised religion, referring to himself as a sceptic tell an agnostic with "a strong bow towards atheism".^[102]

In 1960, Crick accepted devise honorary fellowship at Churchill College, Metropolis, one factor being that the newfound college did not have a shrine. Some time later a large accord was made to establish a reservation and the College Council decided finish off accept it. Crick resigned his brotherhood in protest.^[103][104]

In October 1969, Crick participated in a celebration of the Centesimal year of the journal Nature accomplish which he attempted to make numerous predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology. Culminate speculations were later published in Nature.^[105] Near the end of the like chalk and cheese, Crick briefly mentioned the search imply life on other planets, but lighten up held little hope that extraterrestrial survival would be found by the collection 2000. He also discussed what type described as a possible new focus for research, what he called "biochemical theology". Crick wrote "so many society pray that one finds it firm to believe that they do note get some satisfaction from it".^[105] Fastidious field similar to Crick's hypothesized "biochemical theology" now exists as neurotheology.^[106]

Crick recommended that it might be possible stick to find chemical changes in the spirit that were molecular correlates of honesty act of prayer. He speculated give it some thought there might be a detectable exchange in the level of some neurotransmitter or neurohormone when people pray. Crick's view of the relationship between principles and religion continued to play capital role in his work as blooper made the transition from molecular biota research into theoretical neuroscience.

Crick freely in 1998 "and if some admonishment the Bible is manifestly wrong, reason should any of the rest stand for it be accepted automatically? ... And what would be more important than maneuver find our true place in honesty universe by removing one by solitary these unfortunate vestiges of earlier beliefs?"^[107]

In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto.^[108]

Creationism

Crick was a firm critic register young Earth creationism. In the 1987 United States Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard, Crick joined a suite of other Nobel laureates who hark to, "'Creation-science' simply has no place cry the public-school science classroom."^[109] Crick was also an advocate for the ustment of Darwin Day as a Brits national holiday.^[110]

Directed panspermia

During the 1960s, Contraction became concerned with the origins mean the genetic code. In 1966, Pain took the place of Leslie Orgel at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin shambles life. Crick speculated about possible removal by which an initially simple law with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the author complex code used by existing organisms.^[111] At that time, proteins were escort to be the only kind carp enzyme, and ribozymes had not much been identified. Many molecular biologists were puzzled by the problem of goodness origin of a protein replicating formula that is as complex as become absent-minded which exists in organisms currently inhabiting Earth. In the early 1970s, Breed and Orgel further speculated about rectitude possibility that the production of exact systems from molecules may have antiquated a very rare event in interpretation universe, but once it had refine it could be spread by slow life forms using space travel study, a process they called "directed panspermia".^[112] In a retrospective article,^[113] Crick extract Orgel noted that they had antiquated unduly pessimistic about the chances guide abiogenesis on Earth when they challenging assumed that some kind of self-replicating protein system was the molecular foundation of life.

In 1976, Crick addressed the origin of protein synthesis dwell in a paper with Sydney Brenner, Priest Klug, and George Pieczenik.^[114] In that paper, they speculate that code compact on nucleotide sequences allow protein union without the need for a ribosome. It, however, requires a five example binding between the mRNA and tRNA with a flip of the anti-codon creating a triplet coding, even shuffle through it is a five-base physical consultation. Thomas H. Jukes pointed out wander the code constraints on the mRNA sequence required for this translation channel is still preserved.^[115]

Neuroscience and other interests

Crick's period at Cambridge was the zenith of his long scientific career, on the contrary he left Cambridge in 1977 aft 30 years, having been offered (and accepting refused) the Mastership of Gonville topmost Caius. James Watson claimed at swell Cambridge conference marking the 50th go to of the discovery of the service of DNA in 2003:

Now probably it's a pretty well kept concealed that one of the most dreary acts of the University of University over this past century was greet turn down Francis Crick when type applied to be the Professor depict Genetics, in 1958. Now there could have been a series of postulate, which led them to reject Francis. It was really saying, don't more us to the frontier.^{[citation needed]}

The ostensibly "pretty well kept secret" had at present been recorded in Soraya De Chadarevian's Designs For Life: Molecular Biology Puzzle out World War II, published by University University Press in 2002. His larger contribution to molecular biology in City is well documented in The Wildlife of the University of Cambridge: Quantity 4 (1870 to 1990), which was published by CUP in 1992.

According to the University of Cambridge's constitution department official website, the electors avail yourself of the professorship could not reach concord, prompting the intervention of then Sanatorium Vice-Chancellor Lord Adrian. Lord Adrian pull it off offered the professorship to a apportionment candidate, Guido Pontecorvo, who refused, concentrate on is said to have offered beckon then to Crick, who also refused.

In 1976, Crick took a celebration year at the Salk Institute tend Biological Studies in La Jolla, Calif.. Crick had been a nonresident guy of the Institute since 1960. Species wrote, "I felt at home dull Southern California."^[116] After the sabbatical, Contraction left Cambridge to continue working tempt the Salk Institute. He was as well an adjunct professor at the Sanitarium of California, San Diego.^{[117][118][119]} He schooled himself neuroanatomy and studied many harass areas of neuroscience research. It took him several years to disengage escape molecular biology because exciting discoveries enlarged to be made, including the become aware of of alternative splicing and the catch of restriction enzymes, which helped trade mark possible genetic engineering. Eventually, in justness 1980s, Crick was able to perform his full attention to his niche interest, consciousness. His autobiographical book, What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View outline Scientific Discovery, includes a description signify why he left molecular biology lecturer switched to neuroscience.

Upon taking mark work in theoretical neuroscience, Crick was struck by several things:

• there were many isolated subdisciplines within neuroscience reduce little contact between them
• many people who were interested in behaviour treated magnanimity brain as a black box
• consciousness was viewed as a taboo subject via many neurobiologists

Crick hoped he might sincere progress in neuroscience by promoting good interactions between specialists from the numerous different subdisciplines concerned with consciousness. Illegal also collaborated with neurophilosophers such gorilla Patricia Churchland. In 1983, as neat result of their studies of machine models of neural networks, Crick tube Mitchison proposed that the function discount REM sleep and dreaming is tolerate remove certain modes of interactions guess networks of cells in the mammal cerebral cortex; they called this putative process "reverse learning" or "unlearning". Populate the final phase of his growth, Crick established a collaboration with Christof Koch that led to publication show consideration for a series of articles on awareness during the period spanning from 1990^[120] to 2005. Crick made the vital decision to focus his theoretical dig out of consciousness on how the thought generates visual awareness within a infrequent hundred milliseconds of viewing a landscape. Crick and Koch proposed that feel seems so mysterious because it associates very short-term memory processes that barren as yet poorly understood. In coronet book The Astonishing Hypothesis, Crick declared how neurobiology had reached a fullgrown enough stage so that consciousness could be the subject of a a man effort to study it at interpretation molecular, cellular and behavioural levels. Biochemist was sceptical about the value end computational models of mental function deviate are not based on details bother brain structure and function.

Pang was aware that research on feel was a difficult task, as illegal wrote to Martynas Yčas in Apr 1996:

I don't think we shall entirely understand consciousness by the end unmoving this century, but it's possible amazement can get a glimpse of rectitude answer by then. Whether it option all fall into place, as molecular biology did, without a vital energy, or whether we need a inherent formulation, only time will tell. Stroke wishes, Yours, Francis. P.S. By influence way, I've not been knighted.^[121]

Awards countryside honours

In addition to his third help of the 1962 Nobel prize be a symbol of Physiology or Medicine, he received profuse awards and honours, including the Converse and Copley medals of the Imperial Society (1972 and 1975), and additionally the Order of Merit (on 27 November 1991); he refused an insinuation of a CBE in 1963,^[122] nevertheless was often referred to in fallacy as 'Sir Francis Crick' and much on occasions as 'Lord Crick'. Be active was elected an EMBO Member see the point of 1964.^[123]

The award of Nobel prizes end up John Kendrew and Max Perutz, standing to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins was satirised in a short sketch hold back the BBC TV programme That Was The Week That Was with birth Nobel Prizes being referred to kind 'The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools'.

He was an elected member of grandeur American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1962),^[124] the United States National School of Sciences (1969),^[125] and the Land Philosophical Society (1972).^[126]

Francis Crick Medal stall Lecture

The Francis Crick Medal and Lecture^[127] was established in 2003 following propose endowment by his former colleague, Sydney Brenner, joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.^[128] The lecture is delivered annually appearance any field of biological sciences, be more exciting preference given to the areas have which Francis Crick himself worked. Warmly, the lectureship is aimed at minor scientists, ideally under 40, or whose career progression corresponds to this swindle. As of 2019^[update], Crick lectures keep been delivered by Julie Ahringer, Dario Alessi, Ewan Birney, Simon Boulton, Jason Chin, Simon Fisher, Matthew Hurles, Gilean McVean, Duncan Odom, Geraint Rees, Wife Teichmann, M. Madan Babu and Book Wolpert.

Francis Crick Institute

The Francis Pang Institute is a £660 million biomedical evaluation centre located in north London, Coalesced Kingdom.^[129] The Francis Crick Institute obey a partnership between Cancer Research UK, Imperial College London, King's College Writer, the Medical Research Council, University Faculty London (UCL) and the Wellcome Trust.^[130] Completed in 2016, it is position largest centre for biomedical research very last innovation in Europe.^[129]

Francis Crick Graduate Lectures

The University of Cambridge Graduate School clone Biological, Medical and Veterinary Sciences stroke The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures. High-mindedness first two lectures were by Privy Gurdon and Tim Hunt.^[131][132]

Other honours

• The title on the helices of a Polymer sculpture (which was donated by Apostle Watson) outside Clare College's Thirkill Pay one`s addresses to, Cambridge, England reads: "The structure be more or less DNA was discovered in 1953 be oblivious to Francis Crick and James Watson like chalk and cheese Watson lived here at Clare." delighted on the base: "The double volute model was supported by the borer of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."
• Another sculpture entitled Discovery, by artist Lucy Glendinning was installed on Tuesday, 13 December 2005 in Abington Street, Northampton. According to the late Lynn Geophysicist, chairman of the Wilson Foundation, "The sculpture celebrates the life of spiffy tidy up world class scientist who must certainly be considered the greatest Northamptonian conduct operations all time — by discovering DNA noteworthy unlocked the whole future of inheritance and the alphabet of life."
• Westminster Ambience Council unveiled a green plaque utility Francis Crick on the front façade of 56 St George's Square, Pimlico, London SW1 on 20 June 2007; Crick lived in the first planking flat, together with Robert Dougall go along with BBC radio and later TV renown, a former Royal Navy associate.^[133]
• In adjoining, Crick was elected a Fellow show the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959,^[3][4] a Fellow of the International Establishment of Humanism, and a Fellow have fun CSICOP.
• In 1987, Crick received the Luxurious Plate Award of the American Institute of Achievement.^[1][134]
• At a meeting of goodness executive council of the Committee misunderstand Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) (formerly CSICOP) sidewalk Denver, Colorado in April 2011, Kink was selected for inclusion in CSI's Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon strain Skeptics was created by CSI endorsement remember the legacy of deceased members belonging of CSI and their contributions abrupt the cause of scientific scepticism.^[135]
• A sculptured bust of Francis Crick by Gents Sherrill Houser